Summary

• The Library of Alexandria was the most renowned intellectual center of the ancient world, established in the 4th century BC under the rule of the Ptolemies.
• Housing hundreds of thousands of papyrus scrolls, it attracted scholars from across the world, fostering advancements in science, philosophy, and medicine.
• The library’s vast collection included works from Greek, Egyptian, Persian, Indian, and other cultures, making it a beacon of knowledge and innovation.
• Over centuries, it suffered a gradual decline due to political instability, destruction, and neglect, leading to its eventual disappearance.
• Despite its loss, the Library of Alexandria’s legacy endures, inspiring modern libraries and institutions dedicated to knowledge and learning, including the Bibliotheca Alexandrina, which stands as a tribute to its legendary past.

The ancient Library of Alexandria is by far the greatest and most inspirational library in the history of the ancient World. It was the cure of ignorance, the key to enlightenment, which created the foundation for the future innovation of the ancient Egyptians. The Library of Alexandria in Egypt was a renowned repository of knowledge since its creation around the 4th century B.C. Over six centuries, it thrived as a cultural and intellectual hub of the Hellenistic world. It housed an extensive collection of approximately half a million papyrus scrolls, featuring works by notable figures like Plato, Aristotle, Homer, Herodotus, and many others.

The library attracted brilliant minds from all over the world who both studied and taught there. However, by the 5th century A.D., the library’s existence dwindled. Theft, destruction, and neglect led to its decline, resulting in a loss of its former influence. The library’s history, from its inception to its downfall, is still a mystery that is being explored through research and archaeological findings, presenting a complex and dramatic narrative reminiscent of a Hollywood movie.

The Extraordinary History of the Ancient Library of Alexandria

After Alexander the Great’s death in 323 BC, his empire was contested by his top officers, leading to its division among three dynasties: the Antigonids in Greece, the Seleucids in Asia Minor, Syria, and Mesopotamia, and the Ptolemies in Egypt. These rulers of Alexandria aimed to spread Hellenistic culture and learning, prompting the establishment of libraries across major urban centers. The Library of Alexandria stood out due to its ambition to amass all knowledge. The Ptolemies, especially Ptolemy I Soter and possibly his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus, played a role in its foundation.

Though the exact origins are debated, the Letter of Aristeas, composed around 180-145 BC, attributes the library’s founding to Ptolemy I Soter and credits Demetrius of Phalerum, a student of Aristotle, with its organization. However, modern scholars suggest the library physically materialized during  Ptolemy II Philadelphus’s reign (285–246 BC). While Demetrius might not have directly established the institution, he likely contributed to gathering some of its earliest texts, particularly Aristotle’s and Theophrastus’ works.

Located in Alexandria’s Royal Quarter, the Library showcased Egypt’s wealth and supported research, benefiting the ruler. Its layout included scrolls, Greek columns, a reading room, a dining area, gardens, and lecture halls, resembling a modern university campus. It housed collections of papyrus scrolls from 40,000 to 400,000 at its height, and an inscription above the shelves famously read, “The place of the cure of the soul.” The creation of the library was able to transform the city of Alexandria is a magical capital of knowledge and learning.

The Incredible Hunt for Books From All Over the World

To gather manuscripts, Ptolemaic rulers dispatched agents globally, paying generously for valuable texts. The Ptolemies pursued books fervently, searching ships in Alexandria’s harbor for books under the command of Ptolemy III. They’d return copies or confiscate originals and provide compensatory copies. Ptolemy III Euergetes (246-221 BCE) obtained the original works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides from Athens by depositing silver and keeping the originals.

Librarian Callimachus organized scrolls using the “Pinakes” system, categorizing them by topics such as natural history, law, medicine, and mathematics. The scrolls even had tags specifying details. As the collection grew, a second library, the Serapeum, was built to house more scrolls.

Books were purchased from Athens and Rhodes, supplemented by irregular methods. Egyptian records formed a significant part, encouraged by Ptolemy I for Greek scholars. Other languages and cultures were also represented: Chaldean, Babylonian, Zoroastrian, and even Buddhist works, due to diplomatic exchanges between Ashoka and Philadelphus. The translation of the Hebrew Pentateuch into Greek was vital for Alexandria’s Hellenized Jewish community, resulting in the Septuagint, a crucial work in translation history and biblical studies.

The Magnificent and Rare Content of the Grand Library of Alexandria

The Library of Alexandria’s archives contained from 40,000 to 400,000 papyrus scrolls and works from renowned Greek classical writers like Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and many more. Ptolemy II Philadelphus (282-246 BCE) notably purchased Aristotle’s works at a high cost. The Library of Alexandria made significant acquisitions, including Aristotle’s “books,” with conflicting accounts of their origin. Athenaeus claimed Philadelphus bought them, while Strabo believed they passed through various hands and were confiscated by Sulla in 86 BCE.

Athenaeus might refer to Aristotle’s school collection purchased when his tutor Straton led the Lyceum. Strabo’s account could relate to Aristotle’s personal writings that his successors held until Sulla’s seizure. Medical texts by Hippocrates, poetry by Sappho, Pindar, Hesiod, and scientific writings by Thales, Democritus, and Anaximander were also present. The library collected texts from various cultures: Egyptian, Babylonian, Persian, Assyrian, Indian, Jewish, Zoroastrian, and Buddhist.

The library was a research center that collected works in fields like mathematics, astronomy, physics, and natural sciences. It embraced rigorous textual criticism, assessing multiple versions of the same text for accuracy. Once verified, authorized copies were produced for scholars, nobility, and affluent book collectors globally, resulting in financial support for the library. The library attracted eminent scholars during the third and second centuries BC, The Library of Alexandria housed numerous significant works from scholars, including:

• Zenodotus of Ephesus worked to standardize the texts of the Homeric poems.
• Callimachus, creator of the Pinakes, possibly the world’s first library catalog.
• Apollonius of Rhodes, composer of the epic poem The Argonautica.
• Euclid, the “father of geometry”
• Eratosthenes of Cyrene who accurately calculated the Earth’s circumference.
• Hero of Alexandria, credited with inventing a recorded steam engine.
• Aristophanes of Byzantium was, inventor of Greek diacritics and poetic text division.
• Aristarchus of Samothrace established definitive texts of the Homeric poems and provided extensive commentaries on them.

The Incredible Organization and Head Librarian of the Library of Alexandria

The library was funded by the royal house, and scholars living there enjoyed tax-free accommodation, meals, and a token salary. The head librarian, appointed by the royal court, served for life and was usually a notable scholar. The library’s acquisition policy was comprehensive, aiming to gather Greek writings and important translations, such as the Septuagint. Book agents were sent to acquire works, often by copying them and keeping the originals. The Ptolemies also borrowed and copied famous works. This acquisition policy led to the growth of libraries and the emergence of a parchment industry to replace papyrus.

The head librarians of the Library of Alexandria during the Ptolemaic Period included Zenodotus, Apollonius of Rhodes, Eratosthenes, Aristophanes of Byzantium, Apollonius “maker of forms,” and Aristarchus of Samothrace. Callimachus of Cyrene developed the library’s organizational system through his work called Pinakes, a comprehensive catalog of extant Greek works. This system was based on the library’s holdings and served as a foundation for its organization.

During the Ptolemaic Period, male scholars received patronage to live at the library with accommodations, but the access of female scholars was unclear. The library’s resources were said to include 500,000 works covering a wide range of subjects.

The Brilliant Architecture of the Legendary Library of Alexandria

The Library of Alexandria was designed to become part of a larger research institution known as the Mouseion, which was entirely dedicated to the nine Greek goddesses of arts known as the Muses. The architecture of the library evolved under Ptolemaic rule, expanding to become a hub of learning and culture. Generous royal funding from Ptolemaic kings led to the development of a complex around the Museion.

Though the exact layout remains unknown, the library likely featured lecture halls, labs, meeting rooms, gardens, and even a zoo. A medical school practiced human cadaver dissection, an uncommon skill in pre-Renaissance Europe. The Museion, distinct from a modern museum, functioned as a university where literary works were recited and theories debated.

The library’s archive, possibly separate from the Museion, likely held over half a million scrolls made from Nile River reeds turned into paper. These scrolls contained a vast array of knowledge, including literature, philosophy, science, religion, mythology, and medicine, making it a repository of ancient Western wisdom.

Cast Your Eyes on the Majestic Serapeum “Daughter Library”

It possesses a daughter library, which was known as the Serapeum, made during the reign of Ptolemy III Euergeteswhich held the largest collection of books in all of the cities of Alexandria, all the way to the start of the 4th century AD. In the 370s and 380s, the Serapeum continued to serve as a significant religious site and temple for pagans, offering classrooms for philosophers studying esoteric practices.

During Roman Emperor Theodosius I’s Christian rule, pagan rituals were banned, leading to the destruction of pagan temples. In 391 AD, Theophilus, the bishop of Alexandria, ordered the Serapeum’s destruction and conversion into a church. This outraged pagans, and the teachers and students of philosophy launched a violent attack on Christians, prompting retaliatory actions.

The Serapeum was vandalized and ruined, although some parts endured until the 12th century. While various accounts of its destruction omit any mention of a library, existing evidence suggests that the surviving structure likely held few scrolls by that time. Because of the severe damage that occurred to the entire library, not much is known about the intricate design and full architecture of the library.

Burning & Destruction of the Library of Alexandria – Who Destroyed It

Historians accused Julius Caesar of causing a fire in Alexandria that supposedly destroyed the library. During his occupation in 48 B.C., the city was embroiled in a civil war. While the fire indeed occurred, the library likely remained largely intact, though some scrolls might have been burned.

Evidence from historians like Cassius Dio and later visitors, including Strabo, suggests that the library endured. Contrary to the dramatic narrative, experts now agree that the Library of Alexandria’s decline was gradual and took place over centuries. Various factors contributed, including political instability like Ptolemy VIII’s expulsion of scholars and Theodosius I’s order to destroy pagan temples. Other incidents, such as Diocletian’s sack of the city, played roles in its deterioration.

The library’s downfall coincided with Alexandria’s diminishing stature as an intellectual hub. Rome and Athens emerged as prominent academic centers with their libraries. Economic, political, and social issues led later Ptolemaic rulers to neglect the library’s upkeep, leading to its slow dissolution. The Library declined during the Roman era due to inadequate funding and support, with its membership ending around 260 AD. Alexandria faced a Palmyrene invasion and an imperial counterattack between 270-275 AD, likely causing the Library’s potential destruction if it still existed.

The Serapeum, the daughter library, might have endured beyond the main Library’s downfall. In 391 AD, Bishop Theophilus of Alexandria ordered the Serapeum’s destruction, but it seems it wasn’t functioning as a library then, instead serving as a place for Neoplatonist philosophers following Iamblichus’ teachings. By the 7th century A.D., the Arab Caliphate’s conquest marked the library’s memory. While some stories, like Caliph Omar’s alleged destruction of scrolls in 641 AD, have been largely discredited and proven wrong with further exploration, the exact details of what was lost from the Great Library remain unknown.

Importance of the Library of Alexandria for Humans and Sciences

The Library of Alexandria established a divine atmosphere where great minds could get together and use their intellect and all the great resources to make great innovations that push humanity onto a path of innovation and prosperity. The Library of Alexandria was the site of numerous groundbreaking achievements in various fields, which include the following:

• Aristarchus of Samos proposed the heliocentric model of the solar system, placing the Sun at the center over a millennium before Copernicus.
• Eratosthenes invented geography as we know it, established longitude and latitude, and accurately calculated the Earth’s circumference.
• Hipparchus founded trigonometry, compiled a significant star catalog, and accurately calculated the solar year.
• Callimachus created the first comprehensive catalog of the library’s volumes, pioneering library science.
• Euclid authored “Elements,” a seminal geometry textbook used for 2300 years.
• Herophylus conducted systematic human dissections, identified the brain’s role, and pioneered anatomy.
• Dionysius of Thrace crafted the first surviving Greek grammar, “Art of Grammar.”
• Hero of Alexandria invented gear trains, steam engines, and windmills, pushing engineering boundaries.
• Archimedes was a brilliant scientist that associated with the library and contributed greatly to various fields.
• Claudius Ptolemy proposed an incorrect geocentric model of the universe that dominated for centuries.
• Zenodotus was the first librarian, who wrote on anatomy and dominated medical knowledge until the Renaissance.
• Galen was a physician and anatomist who worked at the library and made significant contributions to medical science.
• Erasistratus founded an anatomy school, identified veins and arteries, and approached the concept of blood circulation.
• Hypatia, a teacher at the library, excelled in mathematics, philosophy, and astronomy as a notable female figure.

The library was connected to the translation of the Old Testament into Greek (Septuagint) and the development of our modern calendar, including the concept of leap years. The library’s destruction led to a loss of invaluable knowledge, marking the end of an era of scientific advancement and a period of decline into superstition and ignorance known as the Dark Ages.

The Library of Alexandria, though prestigious, was just one of many ancient libraries, as it has inspired the creation of a number of great libraries all over the world. During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, public libraries flourished in cities across the Eastern Mediterranean, modeling the style and system of the library.

As the Library of Alexandria declined, other centers of learning emerged in capital cities, with surviving material possibly preserved by libraries like the Imperial Library of Constantinople, the Academy of Gondishapur, and the House of Wisdom. With the rise of Christianity, Christian libraries akin to the Library of Alexandria appeared, containing both pagan and Christian texts. These libraries applied similar philological methods. Ancient texts owe their survival not to the great libraries, but to extensive copying by scribes and later by monks during the Middle Ages.

The Rise of the Lovely Bibliotheca Alexandrina

The idea to resurrect the ancient Library of Alexandria emerged in 1974 from the leadership of the University of Alexandria. UNESCO and the global community joined efforts in 1986 to explore the project’s feasibility. Egypt allocated land and established the National High Commission for the Library of Alexandria. President Hosni Mubarak’s interest fueled progress. The Bibliotheca Alexandrina, completed in 2002 for the cost of US$220 million, stands as a contemporary library and cultural hub, paying homage to the original.

The Bibliotheca Alexandrina is the world’s sixth-largest French-language library. It accommodates eight million books and features a 20,000-square-meter main reading room. The facility includes a conference center, specialized libraries for various purposes, multiple museums and art galleries, permanent and temporary exhibitions, a planetarium, and a manuscript restoration laboratory. It also hosts the International School of Information Science, training library professionals in Egypt and the Middle East.